Business ethics Essay Example for Free

Business ethics Essay Introduction Todays world is continually shrinking due to many factors, not the least of which is the rapid growth of international business. Four specific interlinking phenomena are occurring which present new problems to international business: a) the increase in offshore banking transactions; b) the continuing growth of multinational corporations (MNCs); c) the increasing instances of outsourcing business activities offshore and d) the equally increasing instances of locating and using suppliers of goods and services in developing countries. All four of these phenomena are fueled by economics and they show no sign of abating anytime soon. Two aspects dealt in this paper are: a) the existence of perceived corruption in international business, including graft, kickbacks and preferential treatment and b) workplace conditions that are considered unethical by generally accepted world standards. There are many other aspects of international business which lend themselves to ethical examination, but they are not appropriate here. The approach taken is to examine some of the principal ethical philosophies of the last two hundred years in relation to international business, as follows: a) Immanuel. Kants Categorical Imperative; b) early mercantilist philosophies; c) Distributive Justice; d) Ethical Relativism; e) Integrative Social Contracts Theory; f) Virtue Ethics; g) Confucian and Islamist ethics and h) pragmatic approaches to international business ethics. Then, by way of local comparisons, several local national situations are presented in order to clarify the problem. Finally, in order to address workplace ethics specifically, the SA 8000 Social Accountability standard is presented and analyzed as one approach to remedy a widely recognized situation which required positive attention. Furtherj this standard is presented as a possible entry point toward developing a customer/supplier dialogue which may hole the promise of formulating a wholly new code of international business ethics, not simply another Western concept grafted onto the developing world. 1 Key ethical theories and concepts Kants categorical imperative: Immanuel Kants Categorical Imperative has become a mainstay in the study of ethics for the past two hundred years and has stimulated a considerable amount of both support and objection. His assertion to act only according to maxims which you can will also to be universal laws^^ was seen to be in direct reaction to the relativist philosophies being propagated at that time and can also be seen as a defense of free will which was being called into question as well. Marias^^ points out that Kants purpose was to personalize ethics, not necessarily to institutionalize ethics. Kants ethics describe a moral person; not necessarily a moral society which is a key point in attempting to apply Kantian ethics to our world. Significant problems have been found to exist not within Kants ethics but in its applications. Calder* perceives the lack of degrees of wrongness in Kants Categorical Imperative, stating that this is a major flaw in his ethics. Calders interpretation of Kant is that an act is either right ot wrong in a universal sense, not allowing for varying degrees. This would be a valid objection to Kantian ethics were it not for Kants intention to personalize ethics and to make the individual person responsible for his or her own actions. In this sense, Kants ethics are indeed universal in the sense that each person must decide what is right and what is wrong. An argument could be made that in this sense, Kantian ethics can be applied universally, but with a less than satisfying sense of having identified a code of ethics that would fit like a sort of template over our world. It should also be noted that at the time Kant lived in the late 18 Century, our world was just being discovered as highly diverse. European ethnocentrism was still very much in force and the uncivilized world was seen generally as a very undefined place.The intertwining effects of the growth of world trade, the rapid increases in colonialism and the onset of the industrial revolution stimulated additional efforts to address the people of the world at large. Early mercantilist philosophy: The various mercantilist philosophies which emanated from the growth of colonialism and world trade presented a somewhat different viewpoint to (11)Advances In Management Vol. 5 (3) Mar. (2012) ethics. In the minds of the mercantilists, civil society would contain markets which would be self-regulating and government, business and nonprofit organizations would unite to create social accountability systems which would contain self-enforcing codes of conduct reinforced by the concept of shareholder and stakeholder pressures. These concepts tend to continue to the present day in many business textbooks. However, these early mercantilist philosophies, propounded in the heyday of expansionism by the worlds trading nations, pointedly did not consider what effects mercantilism would have on the rest, of the world. These mercantilist philosophies provided a basis for the development of utilitarian ethics which would become popular in the following century with the writings of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart MilP^ and which would eventually become the unofficial political philosophy of the British government throughout the colonial years and up to the present day. Distributive Justice: The rapid growth of complex economic systems together with the shrinking of the social world gave birth to the concept of distributive justice. The concept has its origins in David Hume and John Locke and continues today in the writings of modern philosophers John Rawis and Robert Nozick. ^ The internationalization of the world economy has further spurred discussion concerning how distributive justice might be applied to international business. Unlike the ethics of early mercantilist philosophies and classical utilitarianism which both fit uneasily in the world of international business, there has been quite a lot of discussion concerning the ethics of distributive justice in this context. The principal questions tend to revolve around how (or whether) gains from international trade get distributed both within and between countries* and whether or not basic human rights are observed in the practice of international business. This second question has also been expanded to discuss whether international business as a function has the obligation to offer help to the inhabitants of developing countries within which they do business. Both concepts would seem foreign to the mercantilists and would pose awkward questions to the utilitarians. Ethical Relativism: The next logical stage of development in the thinking of international business ethics was termed ethical relativism. To put the best face on it, this concept developed as a realization of the multifaceted cultural and social nature of todays world and of the inherent difficulties todays international business person experiences in attempting to deal with these differences. ^^ However, as many authors have pointed out, ethical relativism can be seen as moral approach to business, using cultural differences as an excuse to practice unethical behavior which might not be acceptable in ones own society. ^ The ethical relativism stage of international business ethics exists but does so in a weakened position due to criticisms leveled against it. Integrative Social Contracts Theory: An effective response to ethical relativism in international business has been a blending of ethical relativism and universally recognized ethical principles at least universally recognized in the Western world into a concept that has become known as integrative social contracts theory (ISCT). -^-* Under this concept, certain universal ethical concepts would provide the basis for an ethical code of conduct for international business with the recognition of the validity of certain local ethical practices with the provision that in the event of conflict between the two, universal ethical principles would take precedence. This blending of ethical concepts satisfied most participants in international business activities but not all. One criticism leveled against ISCT is the problem of using empirical methods to discover and define what the authentic norms of a particular culture might be^. The approach taken by most ISCT practitioners lays open to question the overall effectiveness of a purely empirical approach, subject as it is to misinterpretation and lack of complete knowledge and understanding. As a result, critics of ISCT tend to call for a revival of the universal ethical principles that ISCT has largely replaced, causing discomfort particularly in the developing world which has never been completely comfortable with espousing the universal ethical code of former colonizing powers. Virtue Ethics: One possibility of a usable ethical code is the application of virtue ethics to international business. This concept would formulate ethics based on the moral character of the people involved in international business. Clearly, virtue ethics appeals to those who wish the right thing to be done consistently and studies have attempted to apply the concept to the international business arena. * Virtue ethics has also been proposed as a tool that international organizations could use to fight corruption. Nonetheless, it remains undeniable that virtue ethics is grounded in ones own culture and moral beliefs and would necessarily provide a weak tool to formulate any sort of international business ethics code. Confucian and Islamic ethics applications: One has only to look at the major cultures of the world to discover old and well developed codes of ethics. One such ancient culture China has adhered to Confucian ethical concepts for centuries. Magee^* notes that philosophy, including ethical thought, proceeded in China unhindered by established religions, as was the case in the West and therefore developed a thoughtful ethical philosophy deeply seated in Chinese culture. Yew Chan^*^ points out that while most Confucian ethical thought parallels Western ethical thought, there are some significant divergences. Interestingly, one of the principal differences from the Chinese point of view has to do with the West placing results ahead of ethical concerns. Also, the importance of social harmony which takes on a characteristic of ethics in Confucian culture is emphasized in China while downplayed in the West. (12)Advances In Management Vol. 5 (3) Mar. (2012) Another old and well established body of ethics is found in the Middle East, northern Africa and southeast Asia in the ethical traditions of Islam. The Islamic tradition highly values such concepts as trust and benevolence and makes a major point of including justice and social balance in its code of ethics. Most of these concepts have their basic roots in pre-Islamic Arab culture based in turn on Bedouin culture, but they are reinforced by both the Koran and Sharia. Pragmatic approaches The various conflicts resultant from culture meeting culture in the international business world and the typical result of developed societies coming out on top (with the notable exception of the international petroleum industry) has generated a movement termed the United Nations sustainable development initiative. ^ This convergence of business, political and ethical concerns and interests is the most recent attempt to make things right in the international business world in the face of increasing world poverty and hunger and undeniable global inequality. The most recent ethical solution proposed to begin to set things right internationally is called the language of rights. *,This solution which flnds its roots in distributive justice, identifies the multinational corporation as one of the principle change agents and focuses on the capabilities of all concerned rather than on finding blame. The emphasis is on denning and promoting the positive rights of all concerned. International Business Applications From a practical point of view, however, all of these concepts are somehow found wanting. The realities of wide chasms between the developed world and the developing world which in many instances is not developing at all, relatively speaking tends to make nonsense of any attempts to formulate and superimpose any sort of universal ethical code on the whole world. In the old days of colonialism, the Western powers and Japan simply took what they wanted through dint of force and in the present day of neocolonialism these same powers in the persons of international business carry on that tradition in an updated manner. Appeals to post-conventional moral reasoning, in efforts to induce multinational corporations to develop mature corporate ethics in dealing with developing countries, have met with mixed results. Claims of widespread corruption in international business has stimulated a considerable amount of activity both in academia and in international organizations, although strong arguments have been made that bribery and corruption are not cultural characteristics, as they have so often been called, but symptoms of cultural breakdowns under the pressures of a malfunctioning economy. The local gift-giving customs in some cultures has been thoroughly examined and seem to be finally recognized as local custom and not necessarily as a form of graft. ^ One viewpoint sparsely practiced in the search for some resolution of the international business ethics conundrum is viewing business practices from the perspectives of other cultures. Both Confuciani. st and Islamic ethical systems were very briefly noted above and cases drawn from the business experiences of people from a few speciflc countries are now examined by way of comparison in order to better understand the cultural diversity in todays international business environment. Post-apartheid South Africa presents an interesting case study as the only developed economy on the African continent and as the principal trading partner of many African countries. South Africa also presents a model for global multinational corporations in how to deal effectively with developing economies. ^ Through a mixed strategy of business promotion and social involvement in these countries and by limited political involvement with government ministries. South Africa has developed a favorable reputation throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa by remaining pragmatic in dealing with local custom. Within that region, Nigeria has developed a version of virtue ethics based on a communitarian notion of ethics which seems to work well for Nigerian businesses. ^^ Considering that Nigeria is the most economically successful of the black sub-Saharan economies and is the dominant force in West Africa, this application of communitarianism is having a positive effect on its culturally similar neighbors and holds out hope for a type of regional ethical code in business. The case of Jordan, a relatively poor country located in the Mashriq area of the Middle East, shows mixed results when business ethics are examined. Similar to other countries in the region, Jordanian businessmen tend to bend their ethical activities toward what is practical under the pressures of reality which makes them not much different than other businessmen throughout the world. However, the active effect of Islamic ethics, as previously noted, has an ameliorating effect on Jordanian business practices. India presents a more interesting ethical picture. ^* While being largely Hindu in religion with significant minority groups, India is a country comprised of people speaking twenty-six different languages within two large ethnic groups. To consider India as a single culture through which one can examine Indian business ethics would be completely misleading. As a result and considering the existence of under cultures throughout the Indian population, international business performed in India would need to carefully examine the various ethical codes in practice throughout the country in order to understand the culture and begin to apply any sort of integrative social ethical theory. Finally, Australia presents another interesting case study. Australia is a large country approximately the same (13)Advances In Management Vol. 5 (3) Mar. (2012) size as the forty-eight contiguous states in the United States but with the total population of not much more than Los Angeles and Orange Counties in California combined. Rich in natural resources but isolated from the rest of the world by geography, Australia finds itself an essentially Asian country but with a European political, social and cultural tradition. As a result, Australian businessmen have had to learn how to do business with Asian cultures not by choice but of geographic necessity. ^ Adjustments to doing business in Asian cultures has always been a problem for the Australian businessman, particularly when faced with unfamiliar or uncomfortable ethical situations. ^ As a result, Australia can be seen in this sense as a microcosm of what international business people face. Social Accountability International As described above, the applications of ethical codes to international business have been spotty at best. The reasons for this are varied, but seem to have a great deal to do with attempts to formulate universal ethical principles, albeit with the effort to formulate ISCT in order to accommodate at least some local cultural practices that might affect business ethics. A major reason behind this failure may very well be that the various attempts have all been based on Western philosophical thought. Both Confucian and Islamist traditions possess functioning and effective ethical codes which seem to work well in those cultures. In 1997, Social Accountability International (SAI) published Social Accountability 8000, a voluntary standard that attempts to ensure humane workplaces worldwide. The standard was revised and updated in 2001. Rather than using the exhortative approach attempted up until that time by the International Labor Organization (ILO), SA8000 is a frank, open attempt to convince companies that it would be in their best business interests to become registered to this standard. It is based on international workplace norms of ILO conventions, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (saintl. org). It is an auditable certification standard and those companies which pass an initial audit and which also maintain compliance through successful semi-annual surveillance audits are included in a published list of SA 8000-registered companies. Audits are conducted by thirdparty auditing organizations accredited and overseen by Social Accountability Accreditation Services (SAAS). ^ Provisions of SAAS a) Child labor: No workers under the age of 15; minimum lowered to 14 for countries operating under the ILO Convention 138 developing-country exception; b) Forced labor: No forced labor, including prison or debt bondage labor; no lodging of deposits or identity papers by employees or outside recruiters; c) Health and safety: Provide a safe and healthy work environment; take steps to prevent injuries; regular health and safety worker training; system to detect threats to health and safety; access to bathrooms and potable water. d) Freedom of association and right to collective bargaining: Respect the right to form and join trade unions and bargain collectively; where law prohibits these freedoms, facilitate parallel means of association and bargaining; e) Discrimination: No discrimination based on race, caste, origin, religion, disability, gender, sexual orientation, union or political affiliation, or age; No sexual harassment; f) Discipline: No corporal punishment, mental or physical coercion or verbal abuse; g) Working hours: Comply with the applicable law but in any event, no more than 48 hours per week with at least one day off for every seven day period; voluntary overtime paid as a premium rate and not to exceed 12 hours per week on a regular basis; overtime may be mandatory if part of a collective bargaining agreement; h) Compensation: Wages paid for a standard work, week must meet the legal and industry standards and be sufficient to meet the basic need of workers and their families; no disciplinary reductions; i) Management systems: Facilities seeking to gain and maintain certification must go beyond simple compliance to integrate the standard into their management systems and practices. The SA 8000 standard is a rather obvious carrot-andstick approach to flght the more blatant workplace abuses by creating a type of international honor roll of companies which have successfully undergone certification. Its introduction was greeted by a mixed reception^ amid fears that it was just another expensive piece of bureaucracy. However, within a few years the value of the SA 8000 standard was becoming apparent. Further, studies have shown that successful implementation of this standard as well as other similar standards have had the effect of improved international business in developing countries. The SA 8000 approach admittedly does not address all ethical concerns inherent in international business but it does address what can be considered the heart of the problem by attempting to bring workplace conditions in line with generally accepted international standards. As discussed, the issues of corruption in the exercise of international business are being addressed in part by the application of cultural ethical standards, such as Confucian and Islamist practices and the more heinous practices have been so roundly (14)Advances In Management r Vol. 5 (3) Mar. (2012) condemned that they are either fading away or have been made well-publicized examples throughout the world. The hope is if workplace conditions can be brought up to an acceptable level, then the concept of discourse ethics can be put in play under which multinational corporations in partnership with their developing country suppliers can provide a theoretical justification for opening and maintaining a moral discourse which can then establish and mutually maintain ethical principles based on agreement and cooperation. ^ This would be a truly revolutionary development and one which would create a wholly new code of international business ethics involving the customer and the supplier as cooperating partners. Conclusion In the wake of Enron, Tyco and other recent scandals which have severely shaken the publics faith in our business leaders, corporate social responsibility (CSR) has emerged as a serious topic of discussion in the business world. ^Â ° In addition, the popularity of such recent and graphic films as Lord of War, concerning arms dealing in Africa, Blood Diamond, also concerning this topic in Africa and The Constant Gardener, concerning corruption in the international Pharmaceuticals trade and once again in Africa, has raised the publics awareness of business corruption in developing countries. In addition, the rapid movement by Western companies to developing countries as a source of supply based on cheap labor has accentuated the previously invisible problem of working conditions in these areas. ^* Recent health threats concerning tainted pet food and leadbased toys from the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) have served to magnify the situation. American consumers, once complacent concerning the products they bought as long as they were cheap and worked, are becoming more concerned with the quality and inherent safety of these products and a connection seems to have been made in the publics mind with workplace conditions in the countries of origin. The challenge is to keep these issues out in the open until they are resolved. The success of the SA 8000 standard is a good beginning toward instituting a true international discourse which has the potential of creating a new international business code of ethics which all people can buy into and follow a code of ethics which was not exported from developed countries, but one that would truly be an international code of ethics developed in partnership between customer and supplier. Such a mutually developed code of ethics would be-much more easily understood, would stand a much better chance of acceptance because the subjects would also be the formulators and would therefore offer a significantly higher chance of success. References 1. Al-Shaikh F. N. , The practical reality theory and business ethics in non-Westem context: Evidence from Jordan, The Journal of Management Development. 22 (7/8), 679-693 (2003) 2. Beekun R. I. and Badawi J. A. , Balancing ethical responsibility among multiple organizational stakeholders: The Islamic perspective. Journal of Business Ethics. 60 (2), 131-145 (2005) 3. Bendana A. , Shifting Paradigms of thought and power. Development. 47 (1), 22-26 (2004) 4. Beschomer T. and Muller M. , Social standards: Toward an active ethical involvement of businesses in developing countries. Journal of Business Ethics. 73 (1). 11-21 (2007) 5. Bruyn S. T. , The moral economy. Review of Social Economy, 57 (1), 25-46 (1999) 6. Calder T. , Kant and degrees of wrongness. Journal of Value lnquiry. ,39 (2), 229-244 (2005) 7. Chung K. Y. , Ethical perceptions of business students: Differences between East Asia and the USA among Confucian cultures! Journal of Business Ethics. 79 (1/2), 121-133 (2008) 8. Derig Shengliang, A new look at ethics in International business. The International Executive. 34(2), 151-165 (1992) ;l 9. Everett J. , Neu D. and Rahaman A. S. , The global fight against corruption: A Foucaultian, virtues-ethics framing. Journal of Business Ethics. 65 (1), 1-13 (2006) 10. Falkenberg A. W. , When in Rome moral maturity and ethics for international economic organizations. Journal of Business Ethics. 54 (1), 17-32(2004) 11. Flynn G. , The virtuous manager, A vision for leadership in business. Journal of Business Ethics. 78 (3), 359-372 (2008) 12. Gilbert D. U. and Rasche A. , Discourse ethics and social accountability: The ethics of SA 8000, Business Ethics Quarterh, 17 (2), 187-216(2007) 13. 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(Received 8^ December 2011, accepted lO February 2012) Advances In Management Individual Subscription Fellow Membership Indian Rs. 20,000/- US Dollar 2000 Life Membership Indian Rs. 10,000/- US Dollar 1000 Annual Membership Indian Rs. 3000/- US Dollar 300 Institutional Subscription Fellow Membership Indian Rs. 30,000/- US Dollar 3000 Life Membership Indian Rs. 15,000/- US Dollar 1500 Annual Membership Indian Rs. 4000/- US Dollar 400 Please send your cheques / drafts in name of Advances In Management along with Membership Form at above address. (16)Copyright of Advances in Management is the property of Advances in Management and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holders express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

The Final Act of The Crucible :: The Crucible Arthur Miller Essays

The Final Act of The Crucible The final act in the play, act four, fits into the plot three months later, after the court case and all the hangings of the condemned have taken place. It is a scene full of tragedy, defeat, misjudgement and misery. The audience should be left finding themselves asking questions, as 'The Crucible' is a reminder of how evil can be committed by everyday people. This final act shows all the journeys the characters have travelled, in some cases from beginning to end. The way in which some of the characters act reflects the society they live in where in some cases the characters will be of principles and in others they will not. This is evident in the play with two of the main characters, hale and parries who both prefer life to personal integrity. Hale sees this moral error and speaks to Elizabeth of it , 'Life women, life is god's most precious gift; no principle, however glorious, may justify the taking of it' parris does not see this error and mistakes principle for self protection of his life his authority and of those whom he suspects of despising him. Looking at the complete opposite, showing the different priorities within this society and community are the people that lose their lives as they realise the importance of their own principles and integrity. This is evident with the proctors when the play reaches its climax in act four with two of the main characters, john and Elizabeth proctor. John is deciding whether to confess to an accusation he didn't commit, or to deny it and die. John realises the importance of his own integrity and becomes a different man who would rather not lie but tell the truth and be executed. This shows strength and how he is a man of great principle. 'is it fraud.am I not that man.my honesty is broke,Elizabeth ;I am no good man.nothings spoiled by giving them this lie that were not rotten long before' with some strong advice from his wife he chooses honestly and goes to his death with a few others who also refused to confess. The audience will see that this shows commitment and dedication when a man would die rather than confess to a false accusation. In modern day life most societies would not behave like this because people would not be put in this life/death situation. In general I belive most people would rather tell the truth rather than lie and get a bad name for themselves. Elizabeth ends the play with a scene of tragedy. The stage directions have a ray of light fall upon her.

Womens rights

History of women's rights See also: Legal rights of women in history and Timeline of women's rights (other than voting) China The status of women In China was low, largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding Involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long.The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women. Due to the social custom that men and omen should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors of Western Medicine. This resulted in a tremendous need for female doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton (1854-1927)[3] was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA) to found the first medical college for women in China.Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women this College was located In Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Mr. Edward A. K. Hackett (1851-1916) of Indiana, USA. The College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social Greece The status of women in ancient Greece varied form city state to city state. Records exist of women in ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the tlme. [8] In ancient Athens. omen had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the oikos headed by the male kyrios. Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or other male relative. once married the husband became a woman's kyrlos. As omen were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf. [9] Athenian women had limited right to property and therefore were not considered full citizens, as citizenship and the entitlement to civil and political rights was defined in relation to property and the means to life. 10] However, women could acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, though her kyrios had the right to dispose of a woman's property[11] Athenian women could enter into a contract worth less than the value of a â€Å"medimnos of barley' (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading. 9] Slaves, like women, were not eligible for full citizenship In ancient Athens, though In rare circumstances they could become citizens if freed. The only permanent barrier to citizenship, and hence full political and civil rights, in ancient Athens was gender.No women ever acquired citizenship In ancient Athens, and therefore women were excluded In principle and practice from ancient Athenian democracy. [12] By contrast, Spartan women enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. Although Spartan women were formally excluded from military and political life they njoyed considerable status as mothers of Spartan warriors. As men engaged in military activity, women took responsibility for running estates. Following protracted and 40% of all Spartan land and By the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women.The unique thing about Patria Potestas was that it ad no age limits, according to Gaius a man could be consul, have a wife and children of his own and future prominence but as long as his father was alive was still under his potestas (power) and so could own nothing. Patria Potestas only ended with either the death of the father, or emancipation by him. Early in the Republic Manus Marriage ended the potestas for women, but during the middle and later Republic that form of marriage became rare, eventually disappearing completely.Marriage Under Law Rome had only two forms of marriage, and both had exactly the opposite view of legal effects. Manus Marriage was the earlier form of marriage and placed the woman under her husband's manus legally standing in the position of a daughter. Under this type of marriage women could own nothing, and had little if any legal protections. On the other hand a woman assumed the position of her husband's daughter in Manus Marriage making her agnatically instead of cognatically related to Manus, and was the opposite of Manus.Women married Sine Manu experienced no legal changes, so if her father was alive at time of marriage she continued to be his dependent and before the reign of Marcus Aurelius he could even force an end to he marriage. The lack of any legal change of status for the women meant that (provided their father had either died or emancipated them) they could own property, conduct most forms of business, and divorce her husband (without any reason needed). Legally speaking the only lack of independence a woman in Rome experienced in a marriage without Manus was from her fathe r.The only legal issue related to marriage was dowry. A dowry was not required by law, but was usually provided by a father or if a father was nonexistent it would be whatever the bride wished to come out of her own estate. It was administered by the husband, but in the vent of a divorce he was required to provide either the dowry or the equivalent of it back to his wife. In the case of adultery, husbands got to keep portions of the dowry. Politics Legally speaking women were banned from politics.As with freedmen and slaves of the Imperial Family women of the imperial family gained some benefits from the fall of the Republic, but because the nature of the Principate was to hide dictatorship such power had to be subtle and kept out of the public eye when possible. The ban on women and politics was they could not vote or run for office (sine suffragio) enlist n the army, or represent somebody else in court, women speaking their minds was not considered politics and so some women like Hortensia managed to make appearances in politics without violating the law.Inheritance Rights Everyone under the potestas of another had equal rights of inheritance under Roman Law, and wills that did otherwise ran risks of being challenged and invalidated as negligent. Stoic Influence Stoic philosophies had a strong effect on the development of law in ancient Rome. The Roman stoic thinkers Seneca and Musonius Rufus developed theories of Just elationships (not to be confused with equality in society, or even equality) arguing that nature gives men and women equal capacity for virtue and equal obligations to act virtuously (a vague concept).Therefore they argued that men and women have an equal need for philosophical education. [20] Stoic theories entered Roman law first through the Roman lawyer and senator Marcus Tullius Cicero and the influence of stoicism and philosophy increased while the status of women improved under the Empire. [21] Religious scriptures Bible See Women in the Bible â€Å"Adam named his wife Eve, because she would become the mother of all the living. (Genesis 3:20) â€Å"Now Deborah, a prophet, the wife of Lappidoth, was leading Israel at that time. † Oudges 4:4) God chose a woman, Deborah, to lead Israel.Qur'an The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. feminism, and Sex segregation and Islam The Qur'an, revealed to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, provide guidance to the Islamic community and modified existing customs in Arab society. From 610 and 661, known as the early reforms under Islam, the Qur'an introduced fundamental reforms to customary law and ntroduced rights for women in marriage, divorce and inheritance.By providing that the wife, not her family, would receive a dowry from the husband, which she could administer as her personal property, the Qur'an made women a legal party to the marriage contra ct. [citation needed] While in customary law inheritance was limited to male descendents, the Qur'an introduced rules on inheritance with certain fixed shares being distributed to designated heirs, first to the nearest female relatives and then the nearest male relatives. 22] According to Annemarie Schimmel â€Å"compared to he pre-lslamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work. â€Å"[23] The general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. [24] Women were generally given greater rights than women in pre-lslamic Arabia[25][26] and medieval Europe. [27] Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures until centuries later. 28] According to Professor William Montgomery Watt, when seen in uch historical context, Muhammad â€Å"can be seen as a fgure who testified on behalf of women's rights. â€Å"[29] The Middle Ages According to English Common Law, which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced.French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. [30] In the 16th entury, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. [31] Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women, until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a pat riarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. 32] This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples. [33] 18th and 19th century Europe The Debutante (1807) by Henry Fuseli; The woman, victim of male social conventions, is tied to the wall, made to sew and guarded by governesses. The picture reflects Mary Wollstonecraft's views in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published in 1792. [34] Starting in the late 18th century, and throughout the 19th century, rights, as a concept and claim, gained increasing political, social and philosophical importance in Europe.Movements emerged which demanded freedom of religion, the abolition of slavery, rights for women, rights for those who did not own property and universal to political debates in both France and Britain. At the time some of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment, who defended democratic principles of equality and challenged notions that a privileged few should rule over the vast majority of the population, believed that these principles should be applied only to their own gender and their own race.The philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau for example thought that it was the order of nature for woman to obey men. He wrote â€Å"Women do wrong to complain of the inequality of man-made laws† and claimed that â€Å"when she tries to usurp our rights, she is our First page of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen In 1791 he French playwright and political activist Olympe de Gouges published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,[37] modelled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789.The Declaration is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that: â€Å"This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have lost in society'. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen ollows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as â€Å"almost a parody†¦ f the original document†. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that â€Å"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. † The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: â€Å"Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility'.De Gouges expands the sixth article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which declared the rights of citizens to take part in the formation of law, to: Australian women's rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon: A hypothetical female member foists her baby's care on the House Speaker â€Å"All citizens including women are equally admissible to all public dignities, offices and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talents†. De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights. 8] Mary Wollstonecraft, a British writer and philosopher, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, arguing that it was the education and upbringing of women that created limited expectations. Women’s Rights Over the centuries, women have faced numerous difficulties in a male supremacist infested society who places gender as the main determining element of human capacity. Despite the rise of liberal, secularist ideologies that express support for women’s rights in the 08th and 19th centuries, the problem remains chronic as there remain social prejudices and blind convictions on the weaknesses and shortcomings of women as members of society. . During the 50s, the media projected women as undignified citizens who do not have the right to exercise free will. Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin recall Seventeen Magazine to have advised their readers about the role of women in a relationship. That the woman’s role was to function as partners and not rivals, enemies, and playthings, and that the relationship between women and men should create a heaven, a home that should serve as a place of sanctuary and peace (Isserman & Kazin, 2000, 13). The 1960s proved, on the other hand, to be one of the biggest turning points of women’s rights in the United States and across the world. Apart from the emergence of the second wave of feminists, the Vietnam War provided opportunities for women to show their capabilities as members of the working class. The entrance of women to the realm of the paid labor force were led by women who at the time were over the 40-year old mark Despite such remarkable turn of events, women remained to be deemed as underrated second class citizens. Primarily, tradition norms hold that women should not be granted education and right to labor as their capabilities are not equal to those of their male counterparts. As a result, society failed to acknowledge the statistical proliferation of women in the labor sector because of traditional belief and practice. In doing so, society also failed to look at the fact that the entrance of women in the labor force meant that women as unrecognized members of society have finally broken the domestic ideal that women are supposed to show their supremacy as homemakers and housewives. For the African American woman however, the deprivation of rights were enveloped in the concepts of gender and ethnicity. While African-American women enjoyed the rights to having paid labor similar to those of their male counterparts, they were always compared to white women (Isserman & Kazin, 2000, 26). And considering the rampant racial discrimination during the 20th century, the comparisons between African-American women and Caucasian women implied negativity. Likewise, the right to purity for African American women was among the most alarming concerns as the accepted norm regarding women who take pleasure for sensual activities were only ascribed to African American women. Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin (2000, 27) write that white American Writer Willie Morris was shocked by the fact that a woman of his own skin tone does actually enjoy sexual intercourse. Morris added more insult to injury as he denoted his personal thought that â€Å"only Negro women engaged in the act of love with white males just for fun (Isserman & Kazin, 2000, 27). † Women’s rights over the years have been hindered by male supremacists who only believed in the capabilities of their own ego. However, it has also been apparent that apart from gender, skin tone and other physical features are also factors that hinder women from proliferating and being part of a prejudice-free society. But putting all the obstacles that gender issues bring forth, such obstacles should not be the cause of disheartening but a beacon of hope that women would one day face a world free of blind prejudice and mindless conformity. Women’s Rights Women are increasingly under attack in Afghanistan as far as women’s rights are concerned. The Taliban overthrew the afghan government in 1996, and ruled from 1996-2001, and during that time; strict restrictions had been executed on women. Women and girls were not allowed to work or receive education. There was an exception to the rule if a woman was widowed, and had no other source of income, and then she could work. Women could not go outside, unless they were covered in a head to toe â€Å"burqua,† which is their traditional attire, and a male relative had to accompany them. The burqua only has a small mesh opening over the eyes allowing limited vision, and many of the women had been injured due to poor visibility. If a woman showed a bit of her ankle or had noisy shoes, she would be beaten. In addition, women had no voice, so they are were not allowed to speak in public. From puberty until death, women could only speak to men who were relatives. Once â€Å"The War on Terrorism† began, it gave the Afghan and Iraqi women hope to reform their nation and improve the social situation. The Taliban were chased from the country by U. S. military forces in 2001, and there have been some improvements in women’s rights concerning education and employment although many still suffer the hardships they did before the war. Most improvements have happened in major cites of Afghanistan such as Kabul, leaving rural areas with very much change at all. The police still enforce the wearing of the â€Å"burqua† by the women, but in Kabul, many professional women no longer wear the burqua, but many still do. According to a July 2003 Human Rights Watch report, the Southeast Afghanistan army and police practice of kidnapping, robbing and raping is so prevalent that women and girls are staying home as a means of protection. The fear of assault and political intimidation prevents the women and girls from gaining an education, employment and political influence. † (National Organization for Women, 2008) There is no abiding law and order in Afghanistan by the police o r local authorities. The NATO forces do not have enough manpower to offer protection. However, armed fathers, husbands and brothers do all they can to protect the women. Afghanistan is also known for child brides and marrying off girls as young as eleven to men in their thirties and even older. â€Å"True, women hold 27 percent of the seats in the National Assembly and one-sixth of the seats in the Upper House. But most Afghan women remain illiterate, impoverished and vulnerable to political and criminal violence. Only 15 percent of Afghan woman can read. The United Nations has described Afghan women as being â€Å"among the worst-off in the world. On average, women in Afghanistan die at least 20 years younger than women elsewhere. †(Women in Afghanistan, 2006) In Herat, which is Afghanistan’s second largest city, the government has given women and girls limited educational and employment opportunities. Women groups have been censored, and derailed from the governments’ administration. It is bad enough that the government is threatening womenâ₠¬â„¢s rights, but society has imposed other means by handing out pamphlets in communities encouraging parents not to send their daughters to school, and many of the girls schools have been firebombed and burned. Some girls have been poisoned to death for going to school. Parents that often deny education for their daughters, force their young girls into marriage. Girls are forced into marriage as young as eight years old. Other restrictions that Afghan women face as a violation of women’s rights is a ban on outside employment, strict dress code for women, very limited medical care, threats of violence if seen without a husband, father or male relative and rejection of humanitarian aid. Women are denied any share of humanitarian aid delivered to their country under the assumption that the men will take care of the women. Before the Taliban takeover in 1996, the Afghanistan women were scientist, members of parliament, cabinet members, and university professors. They led corporations, non-profit organizations and local communities. Many of these women are more than qualified to lead Afghanistan back to democracy. In November 2001, shockingly, Afghan women marched for their rights in Kabul. For the first time in more than six years, Afghan women rallied for their rights. Hillary Clinton established a campaign for women in Afghanistan and in 1999; she spoke out on their behalf about the abuse and the wearing of the burqua of the women in Afghanistan. Over the years, some schools have reopened in Afghanistan allowing boys and girls to attend. Several women have also been appointed or elected to important political roles. In the past five years, in the southern city of Kandahar at least five thousand women have graduated from special literacy courses, where they learned how to read and write and were taught skills such as dressmaking or computer knowledge. There is a woman minister of public health, a woman minister of women’s affairs and a woman heading the human rights commission. Women are also now able to travel more freely, and they have returned to work. Although progress is being made, there is still much more turmoil. â€Å"Registered cases of physical violence against women and girls in Afghanistan have increased by about 40 percent since March 2007. Some women seek escape by self-immolation, resulting in death or disfigurement. Last year, at least 30 women committed suicide in the western Farah Province alone, most of them by setting themselves on fire, according to Afghan media reports. † (Afghanistan Online, 2008) The Afghanistan government announced a plan to give nearly one third of jobs to women by 2012. I hope that this will lead to greater things, and that the women’s rights of Afghanistan will improve and that every woman will be included throughout the country, and they can move forward. Women’s Rights Womens rights History of women's rights See also: Legal rights of women in history and Timeline of women's rights (other than voting) China The status of women In China was low, largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding Involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long.The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women. Due to the social custom that men and omen should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors of Western Medicine. This resulted in a tremendous need for female doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton (1854-1927)[3] was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA) to found the first medical college for women in China.Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women this College was located In Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Mr. Edward A. K. Hackett (1851-1916) of Indiana, USA. The College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social Greece The status of women in ancient Greece varied form city state to city state. Records exist of women in ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the tlme. [8] In ancient Athens. omen had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the oikos headed by the male kyrios. Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or other male relative. once married the husband became a woman's kyrlos. As omen were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf. [9] Athenian women had limited right to property and therefore were not considered full citizens, as citizenship and the entitlement to civil and political rights was defined in relation to property and the means to life. 10] However, women could acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, though her kyrios had the right to dispose of a woman's property[11] Athenian women could enter into a contract worth less than the value of a â€Å"medimnos of barley' (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading. 9] Slaves, like women, were not eligible for full citizenship In ancient Athens, though In rare circumstances they could become citizens if freed. The only permanent barrier to citizenship, and hence full political and civil rights, in ancient Athens was gender.No women ever acquired citizenship In ancient Athens, and therefore women were excluded In principle and practice from ancient Athenian democracy. [12] By contrast, Spartan women enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. Although Spartan women were formally excluded from military and political life they njoyed considerable status as mothers of Spartan warriors. As men engaged in military activity, women took responsibility for running estates. Following protracted and 40% of all Spartan land and By the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women.The unique thing about Patria Potestas was that it ad no age limits, according to Gaius a man could be consul, have a wife and children of his own and future prominence but as long as his father was alive was still under his potestas (power) and so could own nothing. Patria Potestas only ended with either the death of the father, or emancipation by him. Early in the Republic Manus Marriage ended the potestas for women, but during the middle and later Republic that form of marriage became rare, eventually disappearing completely.Marriage Under Law Rome had only two forms of marriage, and both had exactly the opposite view of legal effects. Manus Marriage was the earlier form of marriage and placed the woman under her husband's manus legally standing in the position of a daughter. Under this type of marriage women could own nothing, and had little if any legal protections. On the other hand a woman assumed the position of her husband's daughter in Manus Marriage making her agnatically instead of cognatically related to Manus, and was the opposite of Manus.Women married Sine Manu experienced no legal changes, so if her father was alive at time of marriage she continued to be his dependent and before the reign of Marcus Aurelius he could even force an end to he marriage. The lack of any legal change of status for the women meant that (provided their father had either died or emancipated them) they could own property, conduct most forms of business, and divorce her husband (without any reason needed). Legally speaking the only lack of independence a woman in Rome experienced in a marriage without Manus was from her fathe r.The only legal issue related to marriage was dowry. A dowry was not required by law, but was usually provided by a father or if a father was nonexistent it would be whatever the bride wished to come out of her own estate. It was administered by the husband, but in the vent of a divorce he was required to provide either the dowry or the equivalent of it back to his wife. In the case of adultery, husbands got to keep portions of the dowry. Politics Legally speaking women were banned from politics.As with freedmen and slaves of the Imperial Family women of the imperial family gained some benefits from the fall of the Republic, but because the nature of the Principate was to hide dictatorship such power had to be subtle and kept out of the public eye when possible. The ban on women and politics was they could not vote or run for office (sine suffragio) enlist n the army, or represent somebody else in court, women speaking their minds was not considered politics and so some women like Hortensia managed to make appearances in politics without violating the law.Inheritance Rights Everyone under the potestas of another had equal rights of inheritance under Roman Law, and wills that did otherwise ran risks of being challenged and invalidated as negligent. Stoic Influence Stoic philosophies had a strong effect on the development of law in ancient Rome. The Roman stoic thinkers Seneca and Musonius Rufus developed theories of Just elationships (not to be confused with equality in society, or even equality) arguing that nature gives men and women equal capacity for virtue and equal obligations to act virtuously (a vague concept).Therefore they argued that men and women have an equal need for philosophical education. [20] Stoic theories entered Roman law first through the Roman lawyer and senator Marcus Tullius Cicero and the influence of stoicism and philosophy increased while the status of women improved under the Empire. [21] Religious scriptures Bible See Women in the Bible â€Å"Adam named his wife Eve, because she would become the mother of all the living. (Genesis 3:20) â€Å"Now Deborah, a prophet, the wife of Lappidoth, was leading Israel at that time. † Oudges 4:4) God chose a woman, Deborah, to lead Israel.Qur'an The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. feminism, and Sex segregation and Islam The Qur'an, revealed to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, provide guidance to the Islamic community and modified existing customs in Arab society. From 610 and 661, known as the early reforms under Islam, the Qur'an introduced fundamental reforms to customary law and ntroduced rights for women in marriage, divorce and inheritance.By providing that the wife, not her family, would receive a dowry from the husband, which she could administer as her personal property, the Qur'an made women a legal party to the marriage contra ct. [citation needed] While in customary law inheritance was limited to male descendents, the Qur'an introduced rules on inheritance with certain fixed shares being distributed to designated heirs, first to the nearest female relatives and then the nearest male relatives. 22] According to Annemarie Schimmel â€Å"compared to he pre-lslamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work. â€Å"[23] The general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. [24] Women were generally given greater rights than women in pre-lslamic Arabia[25][26] and medieval Europe. [27] Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures until centuries later. 28] According to Professor William Montgomery Watt, when seen in uch historical context, Muhammad â€Å"can be seen as a fgure who testified on behalf of women's rights. â€Å"[29] The Middle Ages According to English Common Law, which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced.French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. [30] In the 16th entury, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. [31] Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women, until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a pat riarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. 32] This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples. [33] 18th and 19th century Europe The Debutante (1807) by Henry Fuseli; The woman, victim of male social conventions, is tied to the wall, made to sew and guarded by governesses. The picture reflects Mary Wollstonecraft's views in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published in 1792. [34] Starting in the late 18th century, and throughout the 19th century, rights, as a concept and claim, gained increasing political, social and philosophical importance in Europe.Movements emerged which demanded freedom of religion, the abolition of slavery, rights for women, rights for those who did not own property and universal to political debates in both France and Britain. At the time some of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment, who defended democratic principles of equality and challenged notions that a privileged few should rule over the vast majority of the population, believed that these principles should be applied only to their own gender and their own race.The philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau for example thought that it was the order of nature for woman to obey men. He wrote â€Å"Women do wrong to complain of the inequality of man-made laws† and claimed that â€Å"when she tries to usurp our rights, she is our First page of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen In 1791 he French playwright and political activist Olympe de Gouges published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,[37] modelled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789.The Declaration is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that: â€Å"This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have lost in society'. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen ollows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as â€Å"almost a parody†¦ f the original document†. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that â€Å"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. † The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: â€Å"Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility'.De Gouges expands the sixth article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which declared the rights of citizens to take part in the formation of law, to: Australian women's rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon: A hypothetical female member foists her baby's care on the House Speaker â€Å"All citizens including women are equally admissible to all public dignities, offices and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talents†. De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights. 8] Mary Wollstonecraft, a British writer and philosopher, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, arguing that it was the education and upbringing of women that created limited expectations.

Uncle Tobys Essay - 4956 Words

Understanding marketing system The world is rapidly developing in most aspects of human life. In the aspect of economy, companies or firms nowadays pursue global plans so as to introduce and develop their products as well as their services in other countries, instead of only focusing on business in their nation. However, the companies’ success depends not only on their own activities but also other factors from outside. Therefore, people have widely adopted marketing systems as a tool to obtain their goals. Some interesting articles and books address this issue. Layton, a professor of marketing at the University of New South Wale in Australia, in his articles â€Å"Marketing Systems: A Core Macromarketing Concept† in 2007, examines the†¦show more content†¦Therefore, marketing system is a network of customers and organization that produce product in the way of economic exchange. For instance, Wilkie and Moore (1999), in panel A: Tiffany breakfast items have complex network from the start to coffee, and breakfast pastry. In this panel shows the complication of coffee produce which start from farmer grow coffee leave, transport to the manufacturing to produce coffee and then enter to the market and become Tiffany coffee. In this example, economic exchange was happen in each stage of activities such as growing coffee bean, transport; enter market and taxes GST, seller and buyers. In the article in 2009, Layton (2009) focuses more on the interaction between the marketing systems with the economic growth and quality of life. The writer argues that the changes of marketing systems can effectively or ineffectively affect the development of economy or the well-being of society. In addition, the author maintains that the marketing systems founds in multilayered, multiagent and developed economies. Moreover, the division of labor and specialization, institutions and social matrix are factors which strongly impact economic outcomes. In the paper of Dixon and Wilkinson (1982), the authors argue that marketing is a kind of exchange mechanism that results from buyers and sellers actions to satisfy their requirements. Furthermore, each person plays one or more specific roles of different social systems in whichShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Movie The Song Of The South 2357 Words   |  10 Pages Song of the South is a movie based off of â€Å"Uncle Remus† a book about the stories of Br’er Rabbit. In the book, Brer Rabbit has many encounters with Br’er Fox and Br’er Bear. The stories about Brer Rabbit include The Tar Baby, Brer Rabbit Earns a dollar per minute, and Br’er Rabbit’s Laughin Place.Then in 1946 Walt Disney made a movie based on the book. The movie has many songs that have an uplifting feeling to them like Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah, Everyone’s got a Laughin Place, and How Do You Do. 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This is illustrated to some extent through Sir Toby Belch; a clever character who enjoys playing tricks on people such as Sir Andrew Aguecheek and Malvolio who are less intelligent or more unaware of their humorous characteristics. One of the most entertaining scenes in the play is the one in which Sir Toby and Maria trick Malvolio into thinking that Olivia is in love with him. They forge a love- letter to MalvolioRead MoreTwelfth Night by Trevor Nunn (Screen Play)1687 Words   |  7 Pages(music by Shaun Davey, words by William Shakespeare, sung by Bens Kinsley) Main Characters: Helena Bonham Carter (Olivia), Richard E. Grant (Sir Andrew Aguecheek), Nigel Hawthorne (Malvolio), Ben Kingsley (Feste), Mel Smith (Sir Toby Belch), Imelda Staunton (Maria), Toby Stephens (Orsino), Imogen Stubbs (Viola) and Stephen Mackintosh (Sebastian). â€Å"Twelfth Night is an amusing and entertaining comedy of romance and gender confusion which creates a love triangle out of mistaken sexual identities.Read MoreCereal Marketing Plan Essay1382 Words   |  6 Pagesmost notable opportunity is that it is the first cereal which is especially served for the teenagers at the ages of 13 years to 19 years. Competitor analysis OMG Active Cereal has two major competitors- Uncle Tobys and Kellogg’s. Accounting to an online research statistics in 2011, Uncle Tobys Oats came out on top of the competition, winning the most satisfied customers. Other brands like Kellogg’s Coco Pops and Kellogg’s Crunchy Nut are also popular. Target Market Our marketing department concludedRead MoreTwelfth Night Character Analysis1739 Words   |  7 Pagesfascinates Orsino and hes convincing himself that if she doesnt agree to marry him he might die. As for Sir Andrew, he knows deep down that he doesnt have a chance to be with Olivia, he only chooses to stay after Toby convinces him to try and win her over. In act 2 scene 5 Sir Toby, Sir Andrew, and Maria tricked Malvolio into believing that Olivia was in love with him. Once Malvolio found the letter that Olivia wrote he began to plan his future with her. As he imagines his future with her heRead MoreSpecial K1344 Words   |  6 Pages cereals for: children – with high energy and protein – traditional cornflakes – fruited – oats There are 6 different types of cereal brand: Kellogg’s, Uncle Tobys, Sanitarium, Home Brand, Nestle and Vogel’s Assumptions: Kellogg’s occupies approximately 45% of the shelf Uncle Tobys occupies approximately 30% of the shelf Sanitarium occupies approximately 13% of the shelf Home Brand occupies approximately 5% of the shelf Nestle occupiesRead MoreFunction of Disguise in Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare Essay994 Words   |  4 Pagesthou art a wickedness. This is not the only way in which disguise is used in Twelfth Night, it is also used to create comedy. The Lady Olivias uncle Sir Toby Belch is always being foolish with his friends: Sir Andrew Aguecheek and Maria, the maid. Malvolio, Olivias steward is forever telling them to stop fooling about and Toby, Andrew and Maria take their revenge by playing a trick on him. Maria disguises her handwriting as Olivias as their handwriting is very similar: